The Practice And History Of Alchemy Chemistry Essay

The Practice And History Of Alchemy Chemistry Essay Alchemy, derived from the Arabic word al-kimia (ØلكÙÅ  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡, ALA-LC: al-kÄ «miyÄ ), is both a philosophy and an ancient practice focused on the attempt to change base metals into gold, investigating the preparation of the elixir of longevity, and achieving ultimate wisdom, involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of several substances described as possessing unusual properties. The practical aspect of alchemy can be viewed as a protoscience, having generated the basics of modern inorganic chemistry, namely concerning procedures, equipment and the identification and use of many current substances. Alchemy has been practiced in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), India, Persia (modern Iran), China, Japan, Korea, the classical Greco-Roman world, the medieval Islamic world, and then medieval Europe up to the 20th century and 21st Century, in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2,500 years. HISTORY What existed before modern Chemistry? After the death of Alexander the Great of Macedon (323 B.C.), much of the conquered territories in the Persian Empire that were located in the Middle East and northern Africa, began to dissolve. Ptolemy, one of Alexanders generals, established a kingdom on the coast-line of Egypt. As its capital, Alexandria was considered to be one of the most culturally diverse cities in the world at that time; Ptolemy and Ptolemy II founded the Temple to The Muses, otherwise known as The Museum, to continue scholarly activities and studies of the day. The Museum could be considered an equivalent to a university or a research institution by todays standards. At the Temple of The Muses, Greek philosophy, considered to be the basis for western-scientific ideas and reasoning, fused with local Egyptian khemeia, the ancient art, religion, and ceremonies of embalming the dead to create Greek-Egyptian khemia. Because the art of khemeia had been shrouded in mysticism, religion, and the secretive language of obscure symbols, common people were afraid of the practitioners and their seemingly dangerous yet powerful knowledge of chemicals. There were two major unfortunate byproducts of Greek-Egyptian khemeia that were a result of these cryptic practices and obscure languages and symbols. First, the secretive nature of this field slowed its progression so that no one could profit from anothers mistakes or learn from anothers brilliance. Secondly, anyone who spoke in the obscure languages and symbols of Greek- Egyptian khemeia couldnt be understood, so just about anyone who could make up nonsensical words could pass as a scholar. As time passed, Greek-Egyptian khemeia began to fall further into obscurity, where shadowy practices of wizardry, magic, and sorcery seemed to flourish in mysticism. Of these, a Greek- Egyptian by the name of Bolos of Mendes (c. 200 B.C.) promised a tool which would allow for ways of turning common metals, such as lead and iron, into gold and silver. Although it was not completely understood how this would be done, this tool, referred to as The Philosophers Stone, was the dream of many. Although The Philosophers Stone has never been found, the actual search for it has assisted in the study of metallurgy and methodologies of modern day chemistry by refining many of the practical laboratory techniques, skills, and glassware that are still used today, such as those used in distillation, filtration, crystallization, coagulation, evaporation, and extraction. In 4th century A.D., because Roman Emperor Diocletian feared that a cheap source of silver and gold could bankrupt the already shaky Roman economy and Pope Zosimuss recognition that Greek-Egyptian khemeia was a practice of pagan learning, little was done to stop the destruction of the Alexandrian Museum and its libraries by Christian riots. As a result, the study of Greek-Egyptian khemeia went underground and would remain as a hidden practice until the 7th century, where it emerged in the middle-east. In the early 7th century, Arabic tribes unified and began to conquer much of the middle-east, western Asia, and northern Africa. These conquering armies soon began to march on Eastern Europe, where the inhabitants of Constantinople, with the help of a khemeia practicing Greek-Egyptian named Callinicus, used Greek fire as a form of defense against the intruders (670 A.D.). Greek Fire, a flammable mixture of sulphur, namptha, and quicklime, was placed into a bronze tube, mounted on a castle wall or the bow of a ship, and was lit by a torch to spout fire at anyone who approached. Although this method was able to stave off some of the attacks by land and sea, the Arabic forces soon gained control of Constantinople, discovered the philosophy of Greek science, and began to utilize the practices of Greek-Egyptian khemeia for their benefit. In Arabic, Greek-Egyptian khemeia was translated into the term al-kimiya, flourishing not only as a science of metallurgy, but with the guidance of Jabir ibn-Hayann (c.760-815A.D.), its use in medicine as well. It was Al-Razi (c.850- 925A.D.), however, who perfected the use of plaster of Paris in mending broken bone, His meticulous ability to logically organize his notes and writings showed the importance of clarity with laboratory procedures to the point where he became the first to document and describe the comparisons between smallpox and chickenpox. Many of his works were translated into Latin nearly 600 years later and made an impact on lab methodologies of performing medicine and other experimental research that are still used today. With all of the practical aspects that al-kimiya had to offer, it always had a way of returning to the mystical and what we may refer to today as non-scientific practices. Not only was there a search for The Philosophers Stone, but with a broadened focus on medicines within al-kimiya, finding a single cure for all sicknesses, The Elixir or Life, and discovering a potion for maintaining youth, The Fountain of Youth, became some of the new mystical treasures. With these new promises of magical discovery, al-kimiya remained in a shroud of mystery and the study of chemicals was still considered a dark craft. As western European Crusaders clashed with Arabic Armies in the southern and eastern Europe, an intermingling of ideas and different cultures gave way to growth and appreciation of Arabic arts, science, and mathematics in the west. By the time the last Moorish strongholds in Western Europe were pushed from Spain and Portugal in the 15th century, it became ever so clear that the Latin translations of Arabic sciences and mathematics would forever change the west, thus bringing a close to The Medieval Ages and an opening to the Scientific Renaissance. Known as alchemy, by the Latin translation from the Arabic term al-kimiya, its practice thrived in Europe after being gone for nearly 800 years. Although it was still considered pagan learning in some circles, it thrived in underground communities where the search for the three mystic treasures of The Philosophers Stone, the Elixir of Life, and the Fountain of Youth continued. As Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541A.D.), better known as Paracelsus, studied the medical works of earlier alchemists, in particular Al-Razi, he believed that searching for cures by alchemical means could have a large impact on medicine, also. Until Paracelsus, only organic plant preparations were used for cures and remedies in treating diseases, but he believed that minerals synthesized in the lab were the key to the future of health care. Although he gained many followers, his efforts wouldnt be recognized by traditional European medicine, since he was considered an alchemist. In fact, it would be well over a century after his death until others would recognize his efforts and put them into practice. One of Paracelsus followers and fellow practitioner of alchemy, Andreas Libau (1540-1616A.D.), wanted to bring more clarity and rationality to this field. In 1597 he published ALCHEMIA, which summarized medieval achievements of alchemy, writing with clarity and with minimal mysticism. When theories based upon mysticism were unavoidable, he would reluctantly include them and refer to them as Paracelsians. This book was revolutionary for the field of medicine, the emerging field of a more scientific-based alchemy, and for western science in general because it was one of the first known attempts in separating scientific facts of chemistry from mysticism. Like Al-Razi, Andreas Libau set a standard for alchemists by documentation of important laboratory methods and skills in the preparation of medicinal chemicals within his publications, explaining how mineral salts and acids could be used as curing ailments. It wasnt until Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604-1668A.D.), however, that laboratory method and procedures would lead to the synthesis of Sodium Sulfate, Na2SO4 .10H2O(s), also known as Glaubers Salt. He found that it not only made a mild laxative for medicinal purposes, but when produced in mass quantities it could be commercialized to the general public to make a profit. Etymology The word alchemy derives from the Old French alquimie, which is from the Medieval Latin alchimia, and which is in turn from the Arabic al-kimia (ØلكÙÅ  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡). This term itself is derived from the Ancient Greek chemeia (à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ·ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¼ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ µÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¯ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±) with the addition of the Arabic definite article al- (ØÙ„Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ½).It used to be thought that the ancient Greek word was originally derived in its turn from Chemia (ÃŽÃŽÂ ·ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¼ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¯ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±), a version of the Egyptian name for Egypt, which was itself based on the Ancient Egyptian word kÄâ€Å"me (hieroglyphic Khmi, black earth, as opposed to desert sand). Some now think that the word originally derived from chumeia (à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¼ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ µÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¯ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±) meaning mixture and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry. With the later rise of alchemy in Alexandria, the word may have been mistakenly thoug ht by ancient writers to derive from ÃŽÃŽÂ ·ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¼ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¯ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±, and thus became spelt as à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ·ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¼ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ µÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¯ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±, and the original meaning forgotten. The question of the etymology of the word alchemy is still open, and recent research indicates that the Egyptian derivation of the word may be valid. Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline Alchemy became known as the spagyric art after Greek words meaning to separate and to join together in the 16th century, the word probably being coined by Paracelsus. Compare this with one of the dictums of Alchemy in Latin: Solve et Coagula   Separate, and Join Together (or dissolve and coagulate). The best-known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals into gold (called chrysopoeia) or silver (less well known is plant alchemy, or spagyric); the creation of a panacea, or the elixir of life, a remedy that, it was supposed, would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely; and the discovery of a universal solvent. Although these were not the only uses for the discipline, they were the ones most documented and well-known. Certain Hermetic schools argue that the transmutation of lead into gold is analogical for the transmutation of the physical body (Saturn or lead) into (Gold) with the goal of attaining immortality. This is described as Internal Alchemy. Starting with the Middle Ages, Persian and European alchemists invested much effort in the search for the philosophers stone, a legendary substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Pope John XXII issued a bull against alchemical counterfeiting, and the C istercians banned the practice amongst their members. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of Alchemy. In the late 14th century, Piers the Ploughman and Chaucer both painted unflattering pictures of Alchemists as thieves and liars. By contrast, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, sponsored various alchemists in their work at his court in Prague. It is a popular belief that Alchemists made contributions to the chemical industries of the day-ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of gunpowder, ink, dyes, paints, cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics, glass manufacture, preparation of extracts, liquors, and so on (it seems that the preparation of aqua vitae, the water of life, was a fairly popular experiment among European alchemists). Alchemists contributed distillation to Western Europe. The double origin of Alchemy in Greek philosophy as well as in Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology set, from the start, a double approach: the technological, operative one, which Marie-Louise von Franz call extravert, and the mystic, contemplative, psychological one, which von Franz names as introvert. These are not mutually exclusive, but complementary instead, as meditation requires practice in the real world, and conversely. Several early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis, are recorded as viewing alchemy as a spiritual discipline, and, in the Middle Ages, metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and molecular material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformations. In this sense, the literal meanings of Alchemical Formulas were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy, which being at odds with the Medieval Christian Church was a necessity that could have otherwise led them to the stake and rack of the Inquisition under charges of heresy. Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state; and the philosophers stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evo lution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded in order to discover their true meaning. Psychology Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used by psychologists and philosophers. Carl Jung reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in post-modern contexts. Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of individuation. In his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which Gnosticism survived its various purges into the Renaissance, a concept also followed by others such as Stephan A. Hoeller. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to Yoga of the East, as and more adequate to the Western mind than Eastern religions and philosophies. The practice of Alchemy seemed to change the mind and spirit of the Alchemist. Conversely, spontaneous changes on the mind of Western people undergoing any important stage in individuation seems to produce, on occasion, imagery known to Alchemy and relevant to the persons situation. His interpretation of Chinese alchemical texts in terms of his analytical psychology also served the function of comparing Eastern and Western alchemical imagery and core concepts and hence its possible inner sources (archetypes). Marie-Louise von Franz, a disciple of Jung, continued Jungs studies on Alchemy and its psychological meaning. Alchemy as a subject of historical research The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure hermetic language of the alchemists is gradually being deciphered, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements, cryptography, witchcraft, and the evolution of science and philosophy. Modern connections to alchemy Persian alchemy was a forerunner of modern scientific chemistry. Alchemists used many of the same laboratory tools that are used today. These tools were not usually sturdy or in good condition, especially during the medieval period of Europe. Many transmutation attempts failed when alchemists unwittingly made unstable chemicals. This was made worse by the unsafe conditions in which the alchemists worked. Up to the 16th century, alchemy was considered serious science in Europe; for instance, Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newtons occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous. Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are Roger Bacon, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Tycho Brahe, Thomas Browne, and Parmigianino. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism. Alchemy in traditional medicine Traditional medicines involve transmutation by alchemy, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Chinese medicine the alchemical traditions of pao zhi will transform the nature of the temperature, taste, body part accessed or toxicity. In Ayurveda the samskaras are used to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day. Nuclear transmutation In 1919, Ernest Rutherford used artificial disintegration to convert nitrogen into oxygen. From then on, this sort of scientific transmutation has been routinely performed in many nuclear physics-related laboratories and facilities, like particle accelerators, nuclear power stations and nuclear weapons as a by-product of fission and other physical processes. In literature Sir Thomas Malory uses Alchemy as a motif that underlies the personal, psychological, and aesthetic development of Sir Gareth of Orkney in Le Morte dArthur .Sir Gareths quest parallels the process of Alchemy in that he first undergoes the nigredo phase by defeating the black knight and wearing his armor. After this, Gareth defeats knights representing the four elements, thereby subsuming their power. In fighting and defeating the Red Knight (the overall purpose of his quest) he undergoes and passes the rubedo phase. Gareth, toward the end of his quest, accepts a ring from his paramour, Lyoness, which transforms his armor into being multicolored. This alludes to the panchromatic philosophers stone, and while he is in multicolored armor, he is unbeatable. A play by Ben Jonson, the Alchemist, is a satirical and skeptical take on the subject. Part 2 of Goethes Faust, is full of alchemical symbolism. According to Hermetic Fictions: Alchemy and Irony in the Novel (Keele University Press, 1995), by David Meakin, alchemy is also featured in such novels and poems as those by William Godwin, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Emile Zola, Jules Verne, Marcel Proust, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, James Joyce, Gustav Meyrink, Lindsay Clarke, Marguerite Yourcenar, Umberto Eco, Michel Butor, Paulo Coelho, Amanda Quick, Gabriel Garcà ­a Marquez and Maria Szepes. Hilary Mantel, in her novel Fludd (1989, Penguin), mentions the spagyric art. After separation, drying out, moistening, dissolving, coagulating, fermenting, comes purification, recombination: the creation of substances the world until now has never beheld. This is the opus contra naturem, this is the spagyric art, this is the Alchymical Wedding. In Dantes Inferno, it is placed within the Tenth ring of the 8th circle. In Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone, there are several references to Nicholas Flamel, and a stone that could turn metal into gold and create an elixir of immortality was sought after by both the villains and Harry and friends, for different reasons. In contemporary art In the twentieth century alchemy was a profoundly important source of inspiration for the Surrealist artist Max Ernst, who used the symbolism of alchemy to inform and guide his work. M.E. Warlick wrote his Max Ernst and Alchemy describing this relationship in detail. Contemporary artists use alchemy as inspiring subject matter, like Odd Nerdrum, whose interest has been noted by Richard Vine, and the painter Michael Pearce, whose interest in alchemy dominates his work. His works Fama and the Aviators Dream particularly express alchemical ideas in a painted allegory. The Rise and Demise of Phlogiston, the Birth of Modern Chemistry, and the importance of Measurement Chemistry (1600A.D. to present) Originated and published by J. J. Becher in the late 17th century journal Opuscula Chymica Rariora, roughly translated as The Work of Rare Chemistry, it was known as the first attempts to explain chemical burning and rusting. Becher said that many common day materials contained a substance called phlogiston, translated from Greek, meaning to set on fire. G. E. Stahl, a medical doctor of the same time period and a proponent of phlogiston, explained in a separate publication that: all inflammable objects contained phlogiston which made it possible for them to burn, and as the object burned, phlogiston was poured out into the air. Wood and coal contained a great deal of it, the ashes left after burning did not. Since communication of scientific discoveries was now common place, Stahl supported his theory with meticulous laboratory procedures and qualitative observations. Some of the qualitative observations he made while burning phlogiston rich substances are listed below: 1. Flames extinguish in airtight space because air becomes saturated with phlogiston. 2. Charcoal leaves little residue upon burning because it is nearly pure phlogiston. 3. Mice die in airtight space because air saturates with phlogiston. Phlogiston was considered to be a massless or near massless substance, since no measurement device had ever existed that could experimentally measure it. Because of this inability to quantify the mass of phlogiston, qualitative experimentation, which was limited to the description of the five human senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch, was the only way in which the phlogiston theory could be supported. Another qualitative evidence of phlogiston theory was the white powder residue or rust that was found on the surface of tin after it was heated in the air. Also referred to as calx, meaning limestone, it was believed that this is what remained after phlogiston left the tin metal. Working from previous tin experiments, Antoine Lavoisier (1743- 1794A.D.), a master of building precision instrumentation, attempted to determine the mass of phlogiston with a mass balance that he had manufactured. After evacuating air from a glass vessel that contained tin Filings, he then sealed and began to heat it on his precision mass balance. If the phlogiston theory were correct, he could open the vessel let the phlogiston escape, and finally quantify a value that had eluded scientists for 5 decades. As Lavoisier opened the heated glass vessel, he instead measured a small increase in mass, which went against the phlogiston theory altogether. Although other scientists who held steadfast to the phlogiston theory would make rebuttals that phlogiston must then have a negative mass, these attempts would fall short as other experiments that utilized precision measurements began to compile. For the first time in history, Lavoisier showed that a carefully designed experiment using precision measurement technology could be used as evidence to disprove a theory. More important than disproving the phlogiston theory was the realization that precision instruments yielded important quantitative information about the field of chemistry. Less than a decade later, Lavoisier published his Elementary Treatise of Chemistry (1789), which is considered the first modern chemistry textbook. In it, one could find a well documented view of The Law of Conservation of Mass and the rejection of the existence of phlogiston, along with various new chemistry theories and laboratory techniques that relied upon BOTH qualitative descriptions and quantitative measurements with the help of measurement technology. It not to say that Lavoisier had all the correct theories within his treatise, but rather that the field of modern day chemistry would emerge, depending more heavily upon precision measurements of chemical phenomena rather than the mystical notions of alchemy, like phlogiston and the three mystic treasures.

College Hazing Essay -- College University Student Hazing Violence

Hazing in universities across the nation has become an increasingly dangerous ritual that is seemingly becoming more difficult to put an end to due to its development into an â€Å"underground† activity. Though a regular activity in the seventies, hazing, a possible dangerous act of initiation to a group, has now become an activity that is banned in thirty-nine states (Wagner 16). However, this ritual has not been stopped or become less severe. In fact it is becoming more dangerous. Since it has been banned, with many colleges imposing their own penalties against those participating in it, many fraternities and sororities have pursued this activity in an underground fashion. Since these groups have gone underground, some victims of these rituals have been injured and subsequently died. This is due to the â€Å"hazers† not seeking medical treatment for the victims, for fear that they may be fined or charged by police or campus authorities. One estimate states that at lea st sixty-five students have died between the years of 1978 and 1996 from beatings and stress inflicted during fraternity initiation rites (â€Å"Greek† 26). Hazing has been defined in the Pennsylvania Hazing Law as â€Å"any action or situation which recklessly or intentionally endangers the mental or physical safety of a student or which destroys or removes public or private property for the purpose of initiation or admission into or affiliation with, or as a condition for continued membership in, any organization operating under the sanction of or recognized as an organization by an institution of higher education. The term shall include, but not be limited to, any brutality of a physical nature, such as whipping, beating, branding, forced calisthenics, exposure to the elements, forced consumption of any food, liquor, drug, or other substance, or any forced physical activity which could adversely affect the physical health and safety of the individual, and shall include any activity which would subject the individual to extreme mental stress, such as sleep deprivation, forced exclusion from social contact, forced conduct which could r esult in extreme embarrassment, or any other forced activity which could adversely affect the mental health or dignity of the individual†(â€Å"Pennsylvania Hazing Law† 1). The importance of this hazing situation is the fact that people are being injured, both physically and... ...itiation Remains the Most Secret of Campus Rituals – and the Most Debauched.† The New York Times Magazine 3 Nov. 1996 : 50. â€Å"Former Student Wins #375,000 in Omega Psi Phi Hazing Suit.† Jet 4 Aug. 1997 : 23. â€Å"Greek Tragedies.† U.S. News & World Report 29 Apr. 1996 : 26. Kempert, Jim. â€Å"New Education Options Reduce Punishment for Greeks.† National On- Campus Report. 12 Apr. 1999 : 12. Nuwer, Hank. Broken Pledges: The Deadly Rite of Hazing. Atlanta: Longstreet, 1990. â€Å"Pennsylvania Hazing Law.† StopHazing.org. 30 Nov. 1999. Online. Internet. 9 Dec. 1999. â€Å"The Persistent Madness of Greek Hazing: Phychologists Provide Insight on Why Hazing Persists Among Black Greeks.† Black Issues in Higher Education 25 Jun. 1998 : 14. Pudlow, Jan. â€Å"Sour Note for the Marching 100.† Black Issues in Higher Education 10 Dec. 1998 : 18. Ruffins, Paul. â€Å"Frat-ricide: Are African American Fraternities Beating Themselves to Death?† Black Issues in Higher Education 12 Jan. 1997 : 18. Schleifer, Jay. Everything You Need to Know About the Dangers of Hazing. New York: Rosen, 1996. Wagner, Betsey. â€Å"Hazing’s Uses and Abuses.† U.S. News & World Report 27 Jan. 1997 : 16.

Classical Philosophers Essay -- essays research papers

Classical Philosophy The golden age of Greece was an age of thinking, of knowledge, and of the arts. Some of the greatest minds of any time projected their ideas upon the masses. They were called philosophers. These were men whose minds developed some of the most abstract and revolutionary ideas of the time. Some of them were put to death for their ideas and their beliefs and became martyrs for their cause. During this age, three philosophers in particular stood out from the rest. Socrates Socrates was the first of the three great philosophers. Before devoting his life to his teachings and philosophies, he was a stonemason and also served as a soldier of some distinction during the Peloponnesian war. He never wrote any of his teachings down, and he preferred to speak about his beliefs and philosophies. He also involved himself with the political workings of Athens. He spent most of his life in discussion with young aristocratic men, unrelentingly questioning their blind confidence in popular opinion, but he never offered them any outlined abstract teaching. He merely conversed and questioned their beliefs. Also, unlike other Sophists of the time, he refused to accept pay for his teachings. Because he had no texts written by himself on his beliefs, we turn to his followers for information on his beliefs. Plato documents many of Socrates’ conversations with the youth of Athens in his book, Plato’s Republic. In 405 BC Socrates was convicted (wrongly I might add) of corrupting the youth of Athens, interfering with the religion of the city, and for his intervention into politics. There is a text called `Apology’, which documents his unsuccessful defense speech before the Athenian jury. In 399 BC, surrounded by friends and disciples, he drank hemlock (a poison made from the plant with the same name) and died gracefully. Socrates’ beliefs were not only revolutionary, but also controversial. He spoke with disdain about the gods, and refuted the notion that ‘good’ is doing whatever pleases them. Many texts document his beliefs and morals. Most informative of these are in Plato’s Republic. The best known out of all of his ideas were ideas about virtue, and doing what is right and good. Plato Plato was the next great philosopher, chronologically. It should be noted that Plato’s real name was Aristocles, and that Plato was a nickname, roughly translated to mean... ...e city. Here he started his own academy, known as the Lyceum, and here he began to teach Alexander. (Note: This is where the chain ended. Alexander did not become a philosopher, and did not teach anyone else) Not long after Aristotle returned to Athens, the Athenian people revolted against Macedonian rule. Due to his political position (some would describe it as betrayal) and to avoid being executed, he fled to the island of Euboea, where he died soon afterwards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aristotle’s works were modern for the time. He had distinguished dolphins and whales from fish, created a classification system quite similar to the one in place today, and formed many astronomical ideas, which were not far from the truth. It should also be noted that in medieval times, he gained a great many followers after some of his preserved works were found, and the disciples of the late philosopher generally believed his works as absolute truth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These philosophers made a great impact, even thousands of years after their lives. We still look to their works for answers, and there are systems they themselves created that are still being put into use today. Classical Philosophers Essay -- essays research papers Classical Philosophy The golden age of Greece was an age of thinking, of knowledge, and of the arts. Some of the greatest minds of any time projected their ideas upon the masses. They were called philosophers. These were men whose minds developed some of the most abstract and revolutionary ideas of the time. Some of them were put to death for their ideas and their beliefs and became martyrs for their cause. During this age, three philosophers in particular stood out from the rest. Socrates Socrates was the first of the three great philosophers. Before devoting his life to his teachings and philosophies, he was a stonemason and also served as a soldier of some distinction during the Peloponnesian war. He never wrote any of his teachings down, and he preferred to speak about his beliefs and philosophies. He also involved himself with the political workings of Athens. He spent most of his life in discussion with young aristocratic men, unrelentingly questioning their blind confidence in popular opinion, but he never offered them any outlined abstract teaching. He merely conversed and questioned their beliefs. Also, unlike other Sophists of the time, he refused to accept pay for his teachings. Because he had no texts written by himself on his beliefs, we turn to his followers for information on his beliefs. Plato documents many of Socrates’ conversations with the youth of Athens in his book, Plato’s Republic. In 405 BC Socrates was convicted (wrongly I might add) of corrupting the youth of Athens, interfering with the religion of the city, and for his intervention into politics. There is a text called `Apology’, which documents his unsuccessful defense speech before the Athenian jury. In 399 BC, surrounded by friends and disciples, he drank hemlock (a poison made from the plant with the same name) and died gracefully. Socrates’ beliefs were not only revolutionary, but also controversial. He spoke with disdain about the gods, and refuted the notion that ‘good’ is doing whatever pleases them. Many texts document his beliefs and morals. Most informative of these are in Plato’s Republic. The best known out of all of his ideas were ideas about virtue, and doing what is right and good. Plato Plato was the next great philosopher, chronologically. It should be noted that Plato’s real name was Aristocles, and that Plato was a nickname, roughly translated to mean... ...e city. Here he started his own academy, known as the Lyceum, and here he began to teach Alexander. (Note: This is where the chain ended. Alexander did not become a philosopher, and did not teach anyone else) Not long after Aristotle returned to Athens, the Athenian people revolted against Macedonian rule. Due to his political position (some would describe it as betrayal) and to avoid being executed, he fled to the island of Euboea, where he died soon afterwards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aristotle’s works were modern for the time. He had distinguished dolphins and whales from fish, created a classification system quite similar to the one in place today, and formed many astronomical ideas, which were not far from the truth. It should also be noted that in medieval times, he gained a great many followers after some of his preserved works were found, and the disciples of the late philosopher generally believed his works as absolute truth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These philosophers made a great impact, even thousands of years after their lives. We still look to their works for answers, and there are systems they themselves created that are still being put into use today.

Isolation in Bartleby the Scrivener :: Bartleby Scrivener Essays

Isolation in Bartleby the Scrivener "I prefer not to," "I prefer not to," tells the reader about Bartleby isolating himself. The phrase shows his lack of involvement, another form of isolation. The narrator tells the reader exactly what he did to Bartleby, very vividly, as shown below. In the novella, the author tells the reader, down to the smallest detail, what he did to Bartleby to isolate him from the world. He tells us in this passage, "I placed his desk close up to a small side window in that part of the room, a window which originally had afforded a lateral view of certain grimy backyards, and bricks, but which, owning to insubsequent erections, commanded at present, no view at all, though it gave some light. Within three feet of the panes was a wall, and the light came down from far above between two lofty buildings, as from a very small opening in a dome. Still further to satisfactory arrangement, I procured a green folding screen, which might entirely isolate Bartleby from my sight, t hough, not remove him from my voice." The quotation describes how the narrator secludes Bartleby from society. Even his window, usually a form of escape, results in Bartleby being trapped behind another wall, thus reinforcing his total isolation. The irony lies in the fact that the narrator, while trying to isolate Bartleby, becomes affected by it, so much so that he appears almost human. Instead of dismissing him on the spot for refusing to copy, proofread or leave the premises, he tries to find other employment for him, and even considers inviting him to live in his residence as his guest. The narrator develops before our eyes into a caring person, very different from the cold, unsympathetic person at the beginning of the story. "To befriend Bartleby, to humor him in his strange willfulness, will cost me little or nothing, while I lay up in my soul what will eventually prove a sweet morsel for my conscience." The narrator would normally befriend Bartleby or any othe r "sucker," but Bartleby has given him a conscience. The narrator has realized that a common blemish in a person does not determine the person. In the beginning of the novella, the narrator only cared about his work, but now he realizes that people have a life outside of work, except Bartleby.

Relationship influence relationships Essay

Physical attraction is based on people’s appearances. Often a caring, kind, and affectionate person will go unrecognized among others. Mostly such people find their partners due to physical proximity, â€Å"one’s actual physical nearness to others, in terms of housing, work, school, and so forth.† On the other hand, an attractive person usually would have far more attention from others. Mills had an experiment which showed that â€Å"most important determinant of desire to continue relationship was physical attractiveness.† (1982) However, in Today’s Magazine, the article read : â€Å"according to a new study, [men are] willing to overlook a woman’s body shape and weight if she’s friendly and likeable†. But, consider that the article, if you read it, doesn’t present other important information, such the percentage of people who are in the category, and to what extreme were those studies true: it’s likely that men can overlook minor unattractive traits, but it doesn’t totally disprove the study mentioned above. Even though the point if this study may have changed slightly, it is not a secret that attractive people seem to be more of everything, since with beauty, person seems happy, healthy, successful, interesting, even if it isn’t necessarily so, which is called the halo effect. Another kind of attraction is romantic attraction. It is â€Å"love that is associated with high levels of interpersonal attraction, heightened arousal, mutual absorption (‘with regard to romantic love, the nearly exclusive attention lovers give one another.’), and sexual desire.† Romantic attraction has a â€Å"like scale† and a â€Å"love scale,† that Zick Rubin brought up to measure the â€Å"attitude† towards friends and love partners. In result, love usually included passion and commitment, whereas liking lacked those things. Estimated by these scales, type of attraction can be described by the chosen attitude towards each other, as to what the two people think of each other, and whether they are intimate or not, and so on. Just as there are different reasons for forming our personalities, there are different causes which bring people together. The reason some people choose to date who they date is partially due to homogamy -â€Å"the attraction of people who are alike† and heterogamy – â€Å"the attraction of opposites.† A person may seek to find someone with similar qualities or with the opposite ones to â€Å"balance out.† To some degrees, love may be just a mere excitement. This love (which is also something like secret love) is determined by different situations, such parents’ disapproval, or when fleeing the country with someone. Just as in secret love, those events may lead to feel even stronger attraction. But even if such situations can be an attribute to the relationship, it can also bring conflict. Those relationships can be affected by uncertainty of whether there is any kind of attraction between the two people. (As Kenrick wrote, â€Å"it is sometimes hard to tell the difference among sex, love, and infatuation (1989).† There are also two problems: excitement that adds to attraction and boredom that decreases it; the influenced behavior may not be the cause of attraction. (Homans 1961) Similarly, I am sure there have been times when you’ve known or heard of someone who, for example, embraced everyone he or she was friends with. His or her behavior doesn’t necessarily mean deep attraction, but it may just be a way in culture, personal way of showing friendship, or a habit, or may be the fact that he or she misses his/her girlfriend/boyfriend. Any of those reasons may be the factor, why due to body language, a woman may take such action for affection, or, from another point, a man can misunderstand woman’s â€Å"warning signals†. References Homans, G.C. (1961) Social Behaviour: Its Elementary Forms, New York, Harcourt, Brace and World. Kenrick, D.T. and Trost, M.R. (1989) ‘A reproductive exchange model of heterosexual relationships’ in Hendrick, C. (ed) Close Relationships (Review of Personality and Social Psychology 10) Newbury Park, CA, Sage. Miell, D. & Croghan, R. (1996) ‘Examining the wider context of social relationships’ in Dallos, R. & Miell, D. (eds) Social Interaction and Personal Relationships, Milton Keynes, Open University. Mills, J. and Clark, M.S. (1982). ‘Communal and exchange relationships’ in Wheeler, L (ed.) Review of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol 3), Beverley Hills, CA, Sage

Louis Althusser

In his essay, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, Louis Althusser demonstrates that in order to exist, a social formation is required to essentially, continuously and perpetually reproduce the productive forces (labour-power), the conditions of production and the relations of production. The reproduction of productive forces is ensured by the wage system which pays a minimum amount to the workers so that they appear to work day after day, thereby limiting their vertical mobility.The reproduction of the conditions of production and the reproduction of the relations of production happens through the State Apparatuses which are insidious machinations controlled by the capitalist ruling ideology in the context of a class struggle to repress, exploit, extort and subjugate the ruled class. The Marxist spatial metaphor of the edifice, describes a social formation, constituted by the foundational infrastructure i. e. , the economic base on which stands the superstructure comprising o f two floors: the Law-the State (politico-legal) and Ideology.Althusser extends this topographical paradigm by stating that the Infrastructural economic base is endowed with an â€Å"index of effectivity† which enables it to ultimately determine the functioning of the superstructure. He scrutinizes this structural metaphor by discussing the superstructure in detail. A close study of the superstructure is necessitated due to its relative autonomy over the base and its reciprocal action on the base. Althusser regards the State as a repressive apparatus which is used by the ruling class as a tool to suppress and dominate the working class.According to Althusser, the basic function of the Repressive State Apparatus (Heads of State, government, police, courts, army etc. ) is to intervene and act in favour of the ruling class by repressing the ruled class by violent and coercive means. The Repressive state apparatus (RSA) is controlled by the ruling class, because more often than n ot, the ruling class possesses State power. Althusser takes the Marxist theory of the State forward by distinguishing the repressive State Apparatus from the Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA).The ISAs consist of an array of institutions and multiple realities that propagate a wide range of ideologies such as Religious ISA, Educational ISA, Family ISA, Legal ISA, Political ISA, Communications ISA, Cultural ISA etc. He accentuates the differences between the RSA and the ISAs as follows: 1. The RSA functions as a unified entity (an organized whole) as opposed to the ISA which is diverse and plural. However, what unites the disparate ISAs is the fact that they are ultimately controlled by the ruling ideology. 2.The RSA function predominantly by means of repression and violence and secondarily by ideology whereas the ISA functions predominantly by ideology and secondarily by repression and violence. The ISA functions in a concealed and a symbolic manner. He declares that the School has supplanted the Church as being the crucial ISA which augments the reproduction of the relations of production (i. e. , the capitalist relations of exploitation) by training the students to become productive forces (labour-power) working for and under the Capitalist agents of exploitation.The Educational ISAs, which assume a dominant role in a Capitalist economy, conceal and mask the ruling class ideology behind its liberating qualities so that their hidden agendas become inconspicuous to the parents of the students. Althusser compares â€Å"ideology† to Freud’s â€Å"unconscious†. In the same sense that Freud had stated that the unconscious was eternal, he hypothesizes that ideology too is eternal due to its omnipresence. Therefore, ideology in general has no history.Althusser posits that it is not possible for a class to hold State power unless and until it exercises its hegemony (domination) over and in the ISA at the same time. The importance of ISAs is unde rstood in the wake of class struggles because ISAs are not only a crucial stake in class struggle but they are also the site of class struggle. The resistances of the exploited classes are able to find means and opportunities to express themselves in the ISAs to overpower the dominant class.An oppressed class can end its oppression by over powering the dominant/ruling class by utilizing the contradictions within the ISAs or by conquering combating positions in the ISAs during struggle. The crux of Althusser’s argument is the structure and functioning of â€Å"ideology†. Althusser explains the structure and functioning of ideology by presenting two theses. Firstly, he posits that ideology represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence.This distortion of reality is caused by material alienation and by the active imagination of oppressive individuals who base their domination and exploitation on the falsified representations of the world in order to enslave the relatively passive minds of the oppressed. Secondly, he posits that ideology always has a material existence in the form of concrete entities or apparatuses (ISAs). Hence, an individual’s belief in various ideologies (imaginary realities) is derived from the ideas of the individual who is a subject endowed with a consciousness that is defined by the ISAs.This (false) consciousness inspires and instigates the subject to behave in certain ways, adopt certain attitudes and participate in certain regular practices which conform to the ideology within which he recognizes himself as a subject. The ideas of the subject are inscribed in the ritual practices based on the â€Å"correct† principles of that ideology. Hence, despite the imaginary distortion by ideology, a subject derives his beliefs from the ideas which become his material actions and practices governed by material rituals which are all defined by material ideological apparatus and derived from the same.Althusser’s central thesis states that ideology transforms individuals as subjects by a process of interpellation or hailing. The Family ISA is at work even before a child is born because it predetermines the identity of the child before its birth. Hence, an individual is always-already a subject. An individual is subjected to various levels of ideological subjection and each level of subjection or each ISA that subjects the individual influences the individual’s day to day activities and thereby determines his real conditions of existence.Further, Althusser demonstrates that the recognition of oneself as a ‘free’ subject within an ideology is only a misrecognition because the notion of a ‘free’ subject in ideology is only an illusion. In reality, the subject is subjugated, limited, restricted and controlled by ideology to such an extent that he has limited freedom and diminutive individual agency. Due to this misrecogni tion the subject acts and practices rituals steeped in the dominant ideology that are detrimental to his/her own welfare.

Changing Your Social Class Essay

Social stratification is a ladder of positions with respect to economic construction which influences the social rewards to those in the positions (â€Å"Questions on Social Stratification†). With that, a person may belong to a specific class while being part of the whole society. Social class means the existence of sharing among the people of similar status with respect to wealth, power and prestige. For a layman’s understanding, social class refers to being rich or poor as regarded by the society. A concrete example of this is a situation wherein a person’s social class has changed overnight, where he suddenly becomes homeless. That situation happens to me, and I could say that at that particular moment, my life has changed drastically and dramatically. The privileges that I experienced when I am still rich were lost when I become suddenly homeless. In addition, my opportunities in life also changed when I become poor. While I am still in a higher social class, I do not need to work hard just to earn a living. At that time, I can hire people to work for me and help me to improve my life’s station. But when I become homeless, everything was altered such that I cannot even afford to pay all my basic commodities like food, shelter and clothing. For me, there is always shortage of food when I am already in the lower social class. My family is suffering so much since we need to share a little amount of food everyday. All we can do is to think of those times that we enjoy eating all the food that we want. Since I become homeless, seeking for a good shelter is a problem. I realized that living in the streets is possible. I learned to look for places where squatters stayed. Aside from that, my clothing materials are not enough to keep me warm all day. I need to ask help from those who have enough clothes and request for old but clean and usable clothing materials. With all these hardships that I encountered, people view me as living in extreme poverty. Moreover, the opportunity to work is limited since those people who knew me before no longer consider me as a friend. Yet, I tried hard to find a job just to earn a living. Although people view me recently as poor, I need to work hard and show to them that I am worthy for a decent living. I will work hard for me to rent a house for my family. While it is true that housing costs pose the biggest obstacle for low-wage workers, I also believe that there are realistic solutions to the lack of affordable housing. The government is the only hope for the poor people to help them have their own homes. What the government should do is to facilitate a housing project that offers an affordable housing loan to low-wage workers. The government may also provide homes for the homeless in such a way that presence of perennial squatters will be lessened.   In that way, those who are living in poverty will have the chance to work hard and pay for a simple yet decent home. As a worker, having a work system that does not offer benefits like overtime pay, retirement funds, and health insurance is not fair. The workers should be given good working conditions as they are considered the strength and backbone of the economy. Besides, the request for an increase of salary for workers is not the solution for lack of benefits. Both provision of benefits and increase of salary for workers is necessary things that a worker must have in the society. It is but fair for workers to receive compensation that could improve his station in life and escape from extreme poverty. Therefore, an increase of salary for workers could not redress the lack of benefits for them such that it is completely a separate problem. References Sociology Guide. (2006). Questions on Social Stratification. Retrieved November 11, 2008, from http://www.sociologyguide.com/questions/social-stratification.php.