The History of Chinese Literature Essay Example for Free

The History of Chinese Litearned run averageture EssayWriting in China dates back to the hieroglyphs that were used in the Shang Dynasty of 1700 1050 BC. Chinese books is a vast subject that spans thousands of years. One of the interesting things or so Chinese belles-lettres is that such(prenominal) of the serious literature was still using a formal scripted language that is prefigureed incorruptal Chinese. The outgo literature of the kwai Dynasty era and the four novels that atomic number 18 conside rosy the greatest guiltlesss are important exceptions. However, even during the Qing Dynasty of two hundred years ago, most publishrs composed in a literary stream that ext intercepted back about 2,400 years. They studied very ancient writings in more(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) or less the original indite language. This large breadth of clipping with so legion(predicate) writers living in the various eras and countries makes Chinese literature complex. Chinese literary works include fiction, philosophical and sacred works, poetry, and scientific writings.The dynastic eras frame the memoir of Chinese literature and are examined angiotensin converting enzyme by matchless. The grammar of the written undefiled Language is different than the spoken languages of the past two thousand years. This written language was used by state of many different ethnic groups and countries during the Zhou, Qin and Han eras spanning 1050 BC to 220 AD. After the Han Dynasty, the written language evolved as the spoken languages changed, but most writers still based their compositions on Classical Chinese. However, this written language wasnt the m opposite tongue language even two thousand years ago. The empires and groups of kingdoms of all these eras were composed of slew speaking many different native-born languages. If Europe had a literary history equivalent Chinas, it would be as if most European writers until the 20th century always tri ed to write in ancient Classical Greek that became a dead language more than two millennia ago.Shang Dynasty (about 1700-1050 BC)Development of Chinese WritingThe first of all dynasty for which at that place is diachronic record and archeologic evidence is the Shang Dynasty. It was a small empire in northern central China. No documents from that country survive, but there are archaeological finds of hieroglyphic writing on bronze wares and oracle bones. The hieroglyphic writing agreement later evolved into ideographic and partly-phonetic Chinese characters.Zhou Dynasty (1045-255 BC)Basic Philosophical and spectral LiteratureThe Zhou Dynasty was contemporaneous with the Shang Dynasty, and then they conquered the Shang Dynasty. Their dynasty abideed for about 800 years, but for most of the time, their original territory was broken up into dozens of competing kingdoms, and these finally coalesced into several(prenominal) big and warring kingdoms by the end of the Zhou era. The great literary works of philosophy and religion that became the basis for Chinese religious and social sentiment stem from what is called the Spring and drop finish (770-476) and the militant States Period (475-221). Taoism, Confucian literature, and opposite(a) prominent religious and philosophical schooldayss all emerged during these two periods. The Chinese call this simultaneous emergence of religions and philosophies the One Hundred Schools of Thought.Perhaps so many philosophers could write simultaneously because they lived in small kingdoms that supported them. In Chinese history, the paramount rulers generally squelch or discourage philosophical expression that contradict their own, so when there were several small powers, different schools of judgment could survive in the land at the same time. The major(ip) literary achievements of the Confucian Classics, early Taoist writings, and other important prose works originated in the late Spring and Autumn Period and th e Warring States Period of the Zhou Dynasty era. These literary works deeply shaped Chinese philosophy and religion.Confucius is verbalise to ask edited a history of the Spring and Autumn Period called the Spring and Autumn Annals () that shapes Chinese thinking about its history. There were hundreds of philosophers and writers who wrote conflicting documents, and there was discussion and communication. What we know of the literature of this period was mainly carry on after the Qin Dynastys book burning and from a few recent archeological finds of records. Probably most of the philosophical and religious works of that time were destroyed. If there were great fictional books created, they have been lost. So the main contributions of this period to Chinese literature were the prose works of the Confucian Classics and the Taoist writings, and preserved poems and songs.Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)Literary Disaster and LegalismAt the end of the Zhou Dynasty era that is called the Warring States Period, of the surviving few big states in the land, the Qin Dynasty became the most powerful. The Qin Dynasty had big armies and conquered the others. Once the Qin emperor butterfly butterfly had control, he wanted to keep it, and they squelched any opposition to his beginningity. In the conquered territories, there were learners of many different doctrines and religions. A big philosophical and religious school then was called Mohism. They were particularly attacked by the Qin Dynasty, and subaltern is known about it. An early form of Buddhism was also found in China at that time, but their temples and literature were destroyed and even less is known about them. The emperor wanted to reduce the One Hundred Schools of Thought to one that he approved.He ordered the destruction of most books all over the empire. He even killed many Confucian philosophers and teachers. He allowed books on scientific subjects like medicine or tillage to survive. So the Book Burning and Burial of Scholars was a literary disaster. On the other hand, the Qin Dynasty standardized the written Classical Language. It is said that a minister of the Qin emperor named Li Si introduced a writing system that later developed into modern Chinese writing. Standardization was meant to swear out control the society.The standardized writing system also helped people all over the country to communicate more clearly. The Qin Emperor favored a philosophical school that was called Legalism (). This philosophy of course justify the strong control of the emperor and maintained that everyone should obey him. It is fancy that Li Si taught that human nature was naturally selfish and that a strong emperor government with strict laws was essential for social order. Li Sis writings on politics and law and his propagation of this school much influenced the semipolitical thinking in the Han Dynasty and later eras. Legalism texts and the standardization of writing were the Qin Dynasty eras li terary contributions.Han Dynasty (206 BC 220 AD)Scientific and Historical TextsA former peasant loss leader overthrew the Qin imperium. The Han Dynasty era lasted for 400 years. At the beginning of the era, Confucianism was raised. Confucian texts were rewritten and republished. Confucianism was mixed with the Legalism philosophy of Li Si. The resulting ideology was the official ideology of the Han Dynasty and influenced political thinking afterwards. The eras major contributions were diachronic texts and scientific works. Sima Qian wrote Historical Records that is a major history concerning the overall history of China from before the Shang Dynasty until the Han Dynasty. The books prose was considered a standard for writers in succeeding dynastic eras. some other important historical text concerned the Han Dynasty itself. Some scientific texts were also approximation to be important for their times, thought it doesnt seem that the information was widely known or well known afterwards.The Han Dynasty era was one of the two main hotspot eras for scientific and skillful advance. But printing wasnt available for wide publication of the information. During the Eastern Han Dynasty towards the end of the Han era, the influence of the philosophy of the Confucian Classics that hindered scientific progress was waning. So people were more free to pursue invention. Cai Lun (50121) of the imperial court is said to be the first person in the world to create writing paper, and this was important for written communication at the end of the empire. Finery forges were used in steel qualification. Two or three mathematical texts showing go on mathematics for the times were written. The Han Empire disintegrated into warring kingdoms similar to what happened during the Warring States Period before the Qin Dynasty. For several hundred years, dynasties and kingdoms rose and fell in various places, and the next big and long-lasting dynastic empire is called the hell dust Dynasty.Tang Dynasty (618-907)Early Woodblock Printing and PoetryThe Tang Dynasty had a big empire that benefited from trade with the western hemisphere along the Silk Road, battled with the Tibetan Empire, and experient the growing influence of organized Buddhist religions. This eras main contribution to Chinese literature was in the poetry of Dufu, Li Bai and many other poets. Dufu and Li Bai are ofttimes thought of as Chinas greatest poets. Li Bai (701762) was one of the greatest romantic poets of ancient China. He wrote at least a thousand poems on a variety of subjects from political matters to natural scenery.Du Fu (712-770 AD) also wrote more than a thousand poems. He is thought of as one of the greatest realist poets of China. His poems reflect the hard realities of war, dying people living next to rich rulers, and primitive rural life. He was an official in the Tang capital of Chang An, and he was captured when the capital was attacked. He took refuge in Chengdu that is a city in Sichuan Province. It is thought that he lived in a simple field hut where he wrote many of his better(p) realist poems. Perhaps more than 1,400 of his poems survive, and his poetry is still read and appreciated by modern Chinese people. vociferation Dynasty (960-1279)Early Woodblock Printing, rifle Literature, Poetry, Scientific Texts and the Neo-Confucian Classics The next dynasty is called the variant Dynasty. It was weaker than the Tang Dynasty, but the imperial government officials made uncommon scientific and technical advances. Military technology greatly advanced. They traded little with the west due to the presence of warring Muslim states on the old trade routes. There wasnt territorial expansion, but the empire was continuously attacked by nomadic tribes and countries around them. Their northern territory was invaded, and they were forced to move their capital to southern China. So the era is divided into two eras called the Northern Song (960-1127) and sout hern Song (1127-1279) eras. One of the eras technological accomplishments was the invention of movable type about the turn of 2nd millennia during the Northern Song period. This helped to spread cognition since printed material could be published more quickly and chintzily. Travel literature in which actors wrote about their trips and about various destinations became popular whitethornbe because the texts could be cheaply bought.The Confucian Classics were codified and used as test material for the entrance examination into the elite bureaucracy, advanced scientific texts and atlases were published, and important poems were written. The Confucian Classics were important in Chinas history because from the Song Dynasty onwards, they were the texts people needed to know in order to pass an examination for the bureaucracy of China. These Confucian Classics were the Five Classics that were thought to have been penned by Confucius and the quartet Books that were thought to contain C onfucius-related material but were compiled during the Southern Song era. The Four Books and Five Classics () were basically memorized by those who did the best on the exams.In this way, Confucianism, as codified during the Song era, became the dominant political philosophy of the several empires until modern times. Since the bureaucrats all studied the same works on social behavior and philosophy, this promoted unity and the normalization of behavior throughout each empire and during dynastic changes. The scholar-bureaucrats had a common base of understanding, and they passed on these ideas to the people under them. Those who passed the tall(prenominal) exams were highly respected even if they didnt receive a ruling post. High education in this system was thought to produce nobility. The Five Classics and Four Books were written in the written Classical Language. The Five Classics include The Book of Changes, The Classic of Poetry, The Record of Rites that was a recreation of the original Classic of Rites of Confucius that was lost in the Qin book purge, The Classic of History, and The Spring and Autumn Annals that was mainly a historical record of Confucius native state of Lu.The Four Books include The Analects of Confucius that is a book of pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and recorded by his disciples Mencius that is a collection of political dialogues attributed to Mencius The Doctrine of the Mean and The Great Learning that is a book about education, self-education and the Dao. For foreigners who want a taste of this Confucian philosophy, reading the Analects of Confucius is a good introduction since the statements are usually simple and like common sense. Another period of scientific progress and technical invention was the Song era. Song technicians seemed to have made a lot of advancements in mechanical engineering. They made advanced contraptions out of gears, pulleys and wheels. These were used to make big quantifys, a mechanical odometer on animal drawn carts that marked land distance by making noise after working a certain distance, and other advanced instruments.The Song technicians also invented many uses gunpowder including rockets, explosives and big guns. The imperial court officials did remarkable scientific research in many areas of mechanics and science. Shen Kuo (10311095) and Su Song (10201101) both wrote scientific treatises about their research and about different fields. Shen is said to have find the concepts of true north and magnetic declination towards the North Pole. He also described the magnetic needle compass. If Chinese sailors knew about this work, they could have sailed long distances more accurately. This knowledge would predate European discovery. He did advanced astronomical research for his time. Su Song wrote a treatise called the Bencao Tujing with information on medicine, botany and zoology.He also was the author of a large celestial atlas of five different star maps, and he also made l and atlases. Su Song was famous for his hydraulic-powered astronomical clock tower. Sus clock tower is said to have had an endless power-transmitting chain drive that he described in a text on clock design and astronomy that was published in 1092. If this is so, it may be the first time such a device was used in the world. When the Southern Song Empire was conquered by the Mongols, these inventions and the astronomical knowledge may have been forgotten. Another contribution to the literature of China was the poetry of the Song era. A Southern Song poet named Lu is thought to have written almost 10,000 poems. Su Tungpo is regarded as a great poet of the Northern Song era. Here is a stanza he wrote The moon rounds the red mansionStoops to silk-pad doorsShines upon the sleeplessBearing no grudgeWhy does the moon tend to be full when people are apart?Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) playing period and Great Fictional NovelsThe Mongols were nomadic people who herded cattle north of the Tang Empi re and wandered over a large area fighting on horseback. They believed that they tycoon be able to conquer the world. They easily conquered Persia far to the west. It was a big empire with high technology, a big population and a big army. thusly they decided to try to conquer all the countries around them. They attacked the Tang Dynasty, the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan, and much of Asia, and they formed the biggest empire in the history of the earth until then. They conquered Russia, a part of eastern Europe and a part of the Middle East. In China, the Mongols established the very rich Yuan Dynasty. In their camps, the Mongols were hold ined by behind pecker plays in which a lamp cast the shadows of little figurines and puppets on a screen or sheet. In the Yuan Dynasty, puppet drama continued to entertain the rich dynastic courts in vernacular language.Dramatic operatic theaters with human actors speaking in vernacular language was a favorite form of amusement as well, and some of Chinas best dramatic scripts were written then. Also two of the four novels that are generally considered Chinas best literary classics were written in vernacular language then. So though the Yuan Empire wasnt ruled by Chinese, it was an era of some historically renowned dramatic playwrights and novelists who wrote in vernacular language. It is thought that the operatic drift of the shadow puppet dramas that entertained the courts influenced the development of the operatic theater elan of the Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan rulers were fabulously wealthy according to historical accounts. They had a vast empire and control of trade in Eurasia. For the royal courts or the rich people, slender music, sound effects and talented singers were employed for shadow plays. The Yuan Zaju entitle of opera was similar to their shadow plays.Perhaps the playwrights adopted the plots and the features. There were exciting plots, lucubrate costumes, refined music and singing, action, and dance that the M ongols enjoyed. The music of the Zaju operas was called Yuan Qu (Yuan Music). The language used wasnt the Classical Language but the vernacular language, so that the theater susceptibility be enjoyed by everyone. After the Yuan Dynasty, the operatic behavior developed into the Painted Faces demeanor of Chinese opera that was popular until modern times. Guan Hanqing is regarded as one of the best playwrights of the times. He wrote Midsummer Snow that was one of the most popular drama pieces. It is a tragedy about an unjustly accused woman who standard justice after her death. The Romance of the westerlyern Chamber was written by Wang Shifu.It is considered one of the best romantic dramas ever written in China. Novels were another nifty achievement of the Yuan era. The novelists influenced the future development of the genre. Two novels are still widely read now and are generally considered two of the four greatest novels in Chinese literature. These are Water Margin and The Rom ance of the Three Kingdoms. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms was written in vernacular language by Luo Guan Zhong. It is historical fiction about the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms Period. The Three Kingdoms Period was between the Han and Tang eras.Special emphasis is laid on the two famous historical rulers Liu Bei and Cao Cao who were antagonists. It is a long novel with 800,000 give voices. Water Margin is about the lives and ideals of a group of characters who fought against the corrupt Northern Song Dynasty that the Mongols conquered. It is said it was written in vernacular language by Shi Nai An, but scholars debate about the authorship. Many scholars think that the first 70 chapters were written by Shi Nai An and that the last 30 chapters were written by Luo Guan Zhong who was also the author of The Romance of the Three Kingdoms.Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)NovelsThe Chinese rebelled against the Mongols, and the Ming Dynasty era began about 1368. The Mongols and t he Ming government still sometimes fought. Because of this and the presence of Muslim countries in between, trade with the west was reduced to the pre-Yuan level. The Ming initially were interested in exploration, and Muslims whose ancestors arrived during the Yuan Dynasty and who were familiar with seagoing trade were employed to make long voyages to the Indian Ocean, the Middle East and perhaps Africa. Then they became isolationist. It is interesting that a book that is one of the four great classics called Journey to the West about a monk going to India was written during this time of isolation. Maybe the thought of travel to the lands in the west was appealing then. Novels were the eras main contribution.The Journey to the West is based on the historical journey of a Buddhist to India during the Tang era to learn Buddhist teachings and bring back scriptures and information. In 1629, Xuanzang (602 664) left Changan in 629 and arrived back in Changan in 646. mythologic tales abou t this journey including the character of an intelligent monkey began to be circulated long before the book was written. The author drew on known tales. Journey to the West is thought to have been published anonymously by Wu Chengen in the 16th century though scholars have doubt about the authorship. The trend in that era was for people to write in Classical Chinese and imitate the literature of the Tang Dynasty and Han Dynasty. However, this book was written in the vernacular.Perhaps because there was a privation of accurate geographical knowledge available to the author, much of the geographical landscape of the story is inaccurate. However, the Flaming Mountains that are near Turpan in Xinjiang are mentioned. Perhaps the author meant to poke fun at Chinese religion because a monkey is said to have defeated a whole army led by Taoist gods, and only the Buddhas intervention stopped the monkey. The book describes India as a land of gross sin and immorality, and the monk was commiss ioned by Buddha to help India. The characters in the book are well known to Chinese children, and they often appear in martial arts movies and cartoons.Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)Novels and Pre-modern LiteratureThe Manchus invaded the Ming Empire from the north and established the last dynasty called the Qing Dynasty. The Manchus were not Chinese, but they retained the Neo-Confucian governing system of the Song and Ming eras. The Qing Dynasty came under increasing attack from both internal rebellions and foreign countries. In the nineteenth century, foreign literature and the West became better known. In the middle of this era, the last of Chinas four great classic novels was written called Dream of the redness Chamber () and near the end of the era, modernistic literature developed. The Dream of the crimson Chamber also has an uncertain authorship. Like the other three great classic novels, it was written in a vernacular language the Mandarin language that was the language of the Q ing capital.It is probably mostly composed by Cao Xueqin (about 1715-1763) in the middle 1700s, and the first printing of the book was in the late 1700s. It is thought that Cao did not live to see the first printing. It is thought that another person or other people contributed the ending of the story since the original ending of the story was lost. The book has a lot of textual problems, and there are different versions. In a premise to a printed version in 1792, two editors claimed to have put together an ending based on the authors working manuscripts that they had bought from a street vendor.At the end of the Qing Dynasty era, the dynastic rulers came under increasing pressure both from foreign attacks and internal rebellions. Educated Chinese had easier access to foreign literature, and they were more influenced by Western culture. Students started to travel abroad to study, and schools built by missionaries educated tens of thousands of students. There was a general sense of crisis, and intellectuals started translating foreign works on science, politics, and literature. These were popular, and the culture started to change. Some writers produced fiction more like Western fiction.Chinese LiteraturesChinese Classical ProseProse writing in ancient and pre-modern China differed from poetry in that it was less rigidly structured and wasnt like verses in a song or like one of the common styles of poetry. But compared to English prose, literary prose before the year 1900 was often much more formalized. Except for popular novels and theatrical plays, most of the literary prose works were written in the literary Classical Language. This Classical Language utilized the grammar and ancient characters of the Warring States Period (475-221 BC) and of the Han Dynasty era (206 BC 220 AD). Writers sought to imitate the examples of prose in ancient philosophical and religious books such as Mencius () and Zhuang Zi (). These old texts that were thought to date from abo ut 600 BC to 200 BC were thought to contain examples of careful and well-reasoned discourses and be examples of good organization and style.During the Han Dynasty era (206 BC 220 AD), a more formalized style of prose writing appeared that was called Piantiwen () or parallel prose style. But in the Tang and Song eras, people started to write in the less formal and more ancient style called Guwen () of the Warring States era. So unpolluted prose dirty dog be divided into three types called Piantiwen style, Guwen style, and the vernacular style used in operatic dramas and in the Four Classic Novels of Chinese literature. For about 2,000 years after the Qin Dynasty era (221-206 BC), Chinese writers had a constraint that European writers generally didnt face after the Renaissance. Chinese writers generally needed to write in a common literary language that wasnt their native language or a vernacular language anywhere.The ancient languages of the Warring States Period were extinct. But writers had to maintain the grammar and the use of the vocabulary. In some ways, this is similar to how educated Europeans wrote in Latin until the Renaissance era. During the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), the emperor ordered that all texts other than those of a philosophy called Legalism and some sciences that he favored be destroyed. There was a Book Burning and the Burial of Scholars. They effectively destroyed several religions and philosophical schools and much ancient literature. During the Han era, people tried to reconstruct and preserve what was lost. What emerged as important were works attributed to Confucius, Mencius, Zhuang Zi, Lao Zi, and a few other philosophers. Mencius whose book was considered one of the major texts of Confucianism was said to have elegant diction, and Zhuang Zi whose text was one of the two pillars of the school of Daoism that emerged in the Han era showed how to use anecdotes and allegories effectively. Chinese writers tried to copy their styles.The example of the style from the pre-Qin era was said to be simple and direct. Ouyang XiuIn the Han era, a variant style was developed that was called Piantiwen (). This style wasnt as clear or precise, but it was florid, ornate and rigid. The Piantiwen style was popular for several hundred years afterwards. During the late Tang era (618-907), two prominent officials tried to reintroduce the earlier style called Guwen. Han Yu (768824) and Liu Zongyuan tried to teach others to use Guwen. They are considered two of the great prose masters of the Tang and Song eras. But the Tang Dynasty fell and was replaced by the Song Dynasty (9601279 AD). During the Song Dynasty, another literati named Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) helped to revive writing in the Guwen style. This neoclassical style dominated prose writing for the next 800 years. It was the writing system of rulers in the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1645-1912) eras. In order to gain entrance into the bureaucracy during the Ming and Qing eras, candidates had to pass the imperial qualifying examination.The exam material was the 9 Classics of Neo-Confucianism as was codified in the Song era. The Four Books and Five Classics () were basically memorized by those who did the best on the exams. These works contained the style of writing the literati wished to imitate. After the fourteenth century, vernacular fiction became popular. This may be because the invention of printing allowed the works to be more widely published. In the Yuan (1279-1368), Ming and Qing eras, four novels were published that are considered the best in Chinese history. The four novels are often called the Four Classics in China. whole four were written in a spoken language of their times unlike most ancient literature that was written in the literary Classical Language. These four novels all have disputed authorship. They are The Romance of the Three Kingdoms that is said to have been written by Luo Guan Zhong during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) Water Ma rgin that is said to be written by Shi Nai An during the Yuan era Journey to the West that is thought to have been published anonymously by Wu Chengen during the Ming Dynasty era (1368-1644) and The Dream of the Red Chamber was said to be written by Cao Xueqin (1715-1763) during the Qing Dynasty era (1644-1911). The writers wrote in different languages, but vernacular prose can be called the third type of classical prose writing.Chinese PoetryPoetry has been a favorite literary genre for thousands of years. Poetry isnt taken very seriously in the West, especially in the last two hundred years, but Chinese ancient poetry is still read and ancient Chinese poets are honored. The greatest poets are thought to have lived a thousand years ago or more during the Tang (618-907), Song (960-1279) and Han (206 BC 220 AD) dynastic eras. Du Fu, Li Bai and Su Shi are considered among the best ancient poets, and there are five major kinds of major ancient poetical styles called Shi, Ci, Ge, Qu a nd Fu. The very ancient poetry that was written a thousand or more years ago was simpler and about common things like love, romance and nature that people appreciate.Though much poetry was written in the eras following the Song Dynasty (960-1279), it is thought that the poets became increasingly erudite, academic and esoteric so that modern Chinese cant appreciate the style and meaning. Since the Chinese have a character-based writing system alternatively of an alphabetic system, though the languages have changed, modern Chinese can still read a lot of the ancient poetry. Since the pronunciation of words has changed a lot, often the rhymes or tonal rhythms are lost for poems that rhymed or had tonal patterns. But the meanings of the characters havent changed much, though modern readers may interpret the words to mean something other than the ancient author intended. Nuances and connotations may be lost. Since old poems remain and modern Chinese can understand them to some extent, th ey are still appreciated.Five Kinds of Poems1. Shi Shi poems are composed of couplets. They are poems of two more coupled lines. The two lines of a couplet usually rhyme and match rhythmically and complement each other tonally. Modern Mandarin only has five tones, but ancient languages usually had more, so the tonal rhythms are generally lost. 2. Ci Ci poetry can be described as poems that have patterns of syllables and tonal patterns. In making a Ci poetry, a poet chooses words that fit a specific pattern. These patterns may have once been part of a song. But the music has been lost. There are various patterns that provided affective settings for various effects or moods. 3. Ge The word ge means song. Ge poems are the words to a song that can be sung. There were folk songs as well as songs composed by the literate and educated composers. 4. Qu When the Mongols conquered China and established the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), they brought with them their own style of music and forms of entertainment.They especially liked to watch shadow puppet theaters that were puppet plays of little manipulated figurines and puppets illuminated by a lamp so that the shadows fell against a screen. It is thought that the form of operatic drama of the Yuan Dynasty imitated their shadow play theaters. The style of music and song in the operas was called Yuan Qu or Mongol Music. The songs from the operas and popular songs were a poetic style called Qu that was also popular in later eras. The poetic style is freer of form. 5. FuA fifth major style of poetry is called Fu. These are descriptive poems that contain both prose and couplets. These were popular about 1,500 years to 2,000 years ago. a great deal poets included rare or unusual written characters from preceding eras in their poems.